America's Wars

The American Revolution (1765–1783) was an ideological and political movement in the Thirteen Colonies in what was then British America. The revolution culminated in the American Revolutionary War, which began with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, on April 19, 1775. The war between the colonies and the Kingdom of Great Britain continued for eight years. Leaders of the American Revolution were colonial separatist leaders who, as British subjects, initially sought incremental levels of autonomy, but later embraced the cause of full independence and the Revolutionary War. They formed the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its commander-in-chief in 1775. The Declaration of Independence the following year served to inspire, formalize, and escalate the war, which ultimately ended British colonial rule over the colonies, permitting their independence and the establishment of the United States of America.

The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815. The war stemmed from several ongoing issues: British restrictions on American trade, the forced recruitment of American sailors into the British Navy (known as impressment), and British support for Native American tribes resisting U.S. expansion. Eager to assert its independence and economic freedom, the young United States declared war. Early battles along the Canadian border were inconclusive, but the fighting spread to the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the American frontier over time.

The war’s most famous events include the burning of Washington, D.C., by British forces in 1814, which destroyed much of the city, including the White House. Despite setbacks, American forces achieved notable victories, such as the defense of Fort McHenry, which inspired the writing of “The Star-Spangled Banner.” The war ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, which restored pre-war borders but resolved none of the issues that had caused the conflict. However, the war had a profound effect on American identity. It bolstered a sense of national pride and proved that the United States could stand up to a major world power.

From 1817 to 1898, the United States waged a series of conflicts known as the Indian Wars, which were driven by the nation’s westward expansion. As settlers pushed beyond the Mississippi River and into the Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, and Southwest, they encountered Native American tribes who had long called these regions home. The U.S. government sought to clear the land for settlers, railroads, and industries, often disregarding prior treaties and promises. In response, many Native tribes resisted, leading to decades of fighting, raids, and military campaigns.

Key events included the Seminole Wars in Florida, the violent struggles in the Plains during the 1860s and 1870s, and famous battles like the Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) and the final confrontation at Wounded Knee (1890). By the end of the 19th century, most Native American tribes had been relocated to reservations, their populations diminished by war, disease, and poverty. The Indian Wars were not a single conflict but rather a long series of encounters that fundamentally altered the course of Native American history and the expansion of the United States.

The Mexican-American War, fought from 1846 to 1848, was a conflict between the United States and Mexico that arose from territorial disputes and expansionist ambitions. The U.S., driven by Manifest Destiny — the belief that the nation was destined to spread across the North American continent — sought to acquire lands that would later become the southwestern states. Tensions escalated after the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845, a region Mexico still claimed as its own. When a border dispute near the Rio Grande turned violent, Congress declared war on Mexico, setting the stage for two years of intense fighting.

During the conflict, U.S. forces, led by generals like Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, won a series of key battles, including at Palo Alto, Buena Vista, and Veracruz. The American advance ultimately reached Mexico City, forcing the Mexican government to surrender. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. In the treaty, Mexico ceded over half of its territory, which includes what are now California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of several other states, to the U.S. While the war expanded U.S. territory and fulfilled much of its Manifest Destiny ambitions.

The American Civil War, fought between 1861 and 1865, was a defining moment in U.S. history. The conflict arose primarily over deep divisions concerning slavery and states’ rights. The Southern states, fearing that the growing political power of the Northern states would threaten their way of life and economy, which heavily depended on enslaved labor, seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The Northern states, or the Union, led by President Abraham Lincoln, sought to preserve the United States as a single nation and eventually moved to abolish slavery.

The war was marked by large-scale battles, like Gettysburg and Antietam, and devastating loss of life on both sides. The Union’s industrial strength and larger population gradually wore down the Confederacy, despite the South’s skilled generals and strong fighting spirit. In 1865, after four years of bitter combat, the Confederacy surrendered. The war ended slavery in the United States, established the federal government’s authority over the states, and set the stage for Reconstruction and the long struggle for civil rights. While it reunited the nation, the Civil War left a legacy of scars, shaping the country’s identity and its path forward.

The Spanish-American War, fought in 1898, began after years of rising tensions between the United States and Spain over Spain’s colonial rule in Cuba. American sympathy for the Cuban struggle for independence, combined with sensationalized reports of Spanish atrocities in newspapers, fueled public support for intervention. The situation reached a boiling point after the mysterious explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor, which many Americans blamed on Spain. In April 1898, the U.S. declared war, vowing to free Cuba and end Spanish control in the Americas.

The conflict was relatively short, lasting only a few months. Major battles were fought in the Caribbean and the Pacific, where U.S. forces quickly defeated the Spanish navy and seized key territories. In Cuba, American troops and volunteer units like the Rough Riders, famously led by Theodore Roosevelt, captured Spanish strongholds. By August 1898, Spain had surrendered. The Treaty of Paris, signed later that year, gave the United States control over former Spanish territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Although the U.S. emerged as a new global power, its victory brought new challenges, especially in the Philippines, where Filipino resistance to American rule led to a long and bloody conflict from 1899 to 1902.

Although World War I began in 1914, the United States did not enter the conflict until 1917. The war started in Europe as a struggle among powerful nations, including Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Over time, it turned into a massive and brutal fight involving trench warfare, new weapons like machine guns and poison gas, and heavy casualties. The U.S. initially remained neutral, but as German U-boats attacked American ships and Germany tried to forge secret alliances against the U.S., public opinion shifted. In April 1917, the U.S. joined the Allies, bringing fresh troops and supplies to the exhausted European fronts.

The arrival of American forces gave the Allies a critical boost. U.S. soldiers participated in major offensives in France, helping push back the German army. By late 1918, the Allies had gained the upper hand, and Germany agreed to an armistice, effectively ending the war. World War I reshaped the global political landscape, leading to the collapse of empires and the creation of new nations. For the United States, it marked a turning point as the nation emerged as a significant world power. However, the war’s devastation and the harsh terms of the peace treaty set the stage for future conflicts.

In the early days of World War II, the United States remained on the sidelines as conflict engulfed Europe, Africa, and Asia. However, the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought the U.S. fully into the struggle. American industry mobilized quickly, producing vast quantities of weapons, aircraft, and ships that were shared with Allies through initiatives like Lend-Lease. Together with British, Soviet, Chinese, and other Allied forces, American troops helped to mount a coordinated effort to turn back the Axis powers. The U.S. played a key role in campaigns such as the D-Day invasion of Normandy, which began the liberation of Western Europe, and in the fierce island-hopping battles of the Pacific that led to Japan’s defeat.

But victory was never America’s alone. Britain’s steadfast leadership, the Soviet Union’s massive sacrifices on the Eastern Front, and countless contributions from nations large and small ultimately sealed the Axis powers’ fate. In Asia, Chinese forces endured years of brutal conflict, and in Europe, resistance movements and colonial troops fought tirelessly to undermine enemy control. The Allied victory in 1945 wasn’t just a triumph of military might—it was a global effort that drew upon the courage, resilience, and unity of people from around the world, ending the war and setting the stage for a new chapter in human history.

The Korean War began in 1950, when North Korean forces, backed by the Soviet Union and China, crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea, aiming to reunify the peninsula under communist control. The United Nations, led mainly by the United States, responded quickly to South Korea’s call for help, assembling a multinational force to push back the invasion. Early battles were hard-fought, with South Korean and UN troops retreating until a bold counteroffensive at Inchon turned the tide. The conflict quickly escalated, with Chinese forces joining the war and driving UN troops back, resulting in a series of back-and-forth battles across the Korean peninsula.

Though the United States played a major role in leading the UN coalition, the effort depended on support and contributions from many other nations, including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and Turkey, among others. South Korean forces, who bore the brunt of the conflict on their soil, fought valiantly to defend their homeland. For three years, the war’s bloody stalemates, like those near the 38th parallel, claimed the lives of millions of soldiers and civilians alike. While an armistice in 1953 brought an uneasy ceasefire, it did not bring peace or reunification. The Korean War ended with Korea still divided, the Demilitarized Zone firmly in place, and the legacy of a conflict that shaped the Cold War era and still influences global politics today.

The Vietnam War was a long and bitter conflict that unfolded over several decades, though the most intense fighting occurred between the early 1960s and 1975. It began as a struggle within Vietnam itself—North Vietnam, led by the communist government of Ho Chi Minh, sought to unite the country under its rule, while South Vietnam, backed by the United States and other anti-communist allies, aimed to prevent that from happening. Over time, the war grew into a broader Cold War clash. The United States sent increasing numbers of troops to support South Vietnam, hoping to stop the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, North Vietnam received significant aid from the Soviet Union and China, and guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam, known as the Viet Cong, waged a brutal insurgency.

The war had a profound impact not only on Vietnam but also on the countries involved. American forces, along with South Vietnamese troops and other allies like Australia and South Korea, fought in dense jungles, where conventional battle lines were often blurred. Back home, the United States experienced widespread protests and political division as the conflict dragged on, resulting in over 58,000 American deaths and countless Vietnamese casualties. By 1973, U.S. troops withdrew under a peace agreement, but fighting between North and South Vietnam continued until 1975, when the North captured Saigon and reunified the country under communist rule. Today, the Vietnam War remains a powerful reminder of the human cost of conflict and the lasting challenges of war and reconciliation.

The Gulf War, also known as Desert Shield and Desert Storm, began in August 1990 when Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded neighboring Kuwait. Iraq aimed to control Kuwait’s vast oil reserves and strengthen its regional power. In response, the United Nations called for Iraq to withdraw, and when diplomacy failed, a coalition of 35 nations led by the United States launched Operation Desert Shield. This operation focused on protecting Saudi Arabia and building up forces in the region. Months of intense preparation and coordination followed, as soldiers, tanks, and aircraft arrived in the Persian Gulf to deter further aggression and prepare for a possible offensive.

By January 1991, after repeated attempts at negotiation, the coalition began Operation Desert Storm, a massive air and ground campaign to liberate Kuwait. For six weeks, coalition forces launched overwhelming airstrikes, followed by a swift ground assault that quickly overwhelmed Iraqi troops. With its highly coordinated international coalition, advanced technology, and decisive strategy, Desert Storm ended in victory for the Allied forces. Kuwait was liberated, and Iraq’s army was pushed back. However, Saddam Hussein remained in power, and the Gulf War marked the beginning of a longer period of tension and unrest in the region.